半导体制造技术

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Semiconductor Industry

Objectives

Introduction

Development of an Industry

Industry Roots

The Solid State

Circuit Integration

Integration Eras

IC Fabrication

Wafer Fab

Stages of IC Fabrication

Semiconductor Trends

Increase in Chip Performance

Increase in Chip Reliability

Reduction in Chip Price

The Electronic Era

The 1950s: Transistor Technology

The 1960s: Process Technology

The 1970s: Competition

The 1980s: Automation

The 1990s: Volume Production

Careers in Semiconductor Manufacturing

Technician

Job Descriptions

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

Selected Industry Web sites

REFERENCES

Chapter 2 Characteristics of Semiconductor Materials

Objectives

Introduction

Atomic Structure

Electrons

The Periodic Table

Ionic Bonds

Covalent Bonds

Classifying Materials

Conductors

Insulators

Semiconductors

Silicon

Pure Silicon

Why Silicon*

Doped Silicon

pn Junctions

Alternative Semiconductor Materials

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

REFERENCES

Chapter 3 Device Technologies

Objectives

Introduction

Circuit Types

Analog Circuits

Digital Circuits

Passive Component Structures

IC Resistor Structures

IC Capacitor Structures

Active Component Structures

The pn Junction Diod

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

Schottky Diode

Bipolar IC Technology

CMOS IC Technology 52

Enhancement and Depletion-Mode MOSFETs

Latchup in CMOS Devices

Integrated Circuit Products

Linear IC Product Types

Digital IC Product Types

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

IC Manufacturers’ web sites

REFERENCES

Chapter 4 Silicon and Wafer Preparation

Objectives

Introduction

Semiconductor-Grade Silicon

Crystal Structure

Amorphous Materials

Unit Cells

Polycrystal and Monocrystal Structures

Crystal Orientation

Monocrystal Silicon Growth

CZ Method

Float-Zone Method

Reasons for Larger Ingot Diameters

Crystal Defects in Silicon

Point Defects

Dislocations

Gross Defects

Wafer Preparation

Shaping Operations

Wafer Slicing

Wafer Lapping and Edge Contour

Etching

Polishing

Cleaning

Wafer Evaluation

Packaging

Quality Measures

Physical Dimensions

Flatness

Microroughness

Oxygen Content

Crystal Defects

Particles

Bulk Resistivity

Epitaxial Layer

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

Selected industry web sites

REFEREnCES

Chapter 5 Chemicals in Semiconductor Fabrication

Objectives

Introduction

States of Matter

Properties of Materials

Chemical Properties for Semiconductor Manufacturing

Process Chemicals

Liquids

Gases

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

Chemical Suppliers’ Web Sites

REFERENCES

Chapter 6 Contamination Control in Wafer

Fabs Objectives

Introduction

Clean Background

Types of Contamination

Particles

Metallic Impurities

Organic Contamination

Native Oxides

Electrostatic Discharge

Sources and Control of Contamination

Air

Humans

Facility

Water

Process Chemicals

Production Equipment

Workstation Design

Wafer Wet Cleaning

Wet-Cleaning Overview

Wet-Clean Equipment

Alternatives to RCA Clean

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

CHEMICAL AND EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS’ WEB Sites

REFERENCES

Chapter 7 Metrology and Defect Inspection

Objectives

Introduction

IC Metrology

Measurement Equipment

Yield

Data Management

Quality Measures

Film Thickness

Film Stress

Refractive Index

Dopant Concentration

Unpatterned Surface Defects

Patterned Surface Defects

Critical Dimension (CD)

Step Coverage

Overlay Registration

Capacitance-Voltage (C-V) Test

Contact Angle

Analytical Equipment

Secondary-Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)

Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)

Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES)

X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

Energy- and Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometer (EDX and WDX)

Focused Ion Beam (FIB)

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

Metrology Equipment Suppliers* Web Sites

REFERENCES

Chapter 8 Gas Control in Process Chambers

Objectives

Introduction

Vacuum

Vacuum Ranges

Mean Free Path

Vacuum Pumps

Roughing Pump

High Vacuum Pump

Vacuum in Integrated Tools

Process Chamber Gas Flow

Mass Flow Controllers

Residual Gas Analyzer (RGA)

RGA Basics

RGA as Real-Time Monitor

Plasma

Glow Discharge

Process Chamber

Contamination

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

Vacuum Equipment Suppliers’ Web Sites

References

Chapter 9 IC Fabrication Process Overview

Objectives

Introduction

CMOS Process Flow

Overview of Areas in a Wafer Fab

CMOS Manufacturing Steps

1. Twin Well Process

2. Shallow Trench Isolation Process

3. Poly Gate Structural Process

4. Lightly Doped Drain (LDD) Implant Process

5. Sidewall Spacer Formation

6. Source/Drain (S/D) Implant Processes

7. Contact Formation

8. Local Interconnect (LI) Process

9. Via-1 and Plug-1 Formation

10. Metal-1 Interconnect Formation

11. Via-2 and Plug-1 Formation

12. Metal-2 Interconnect Formation

13. Metal-3 to Pad Etch and Alloy

14. Parametric Testing

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

References

Chapter 10 Oxidation

Objectives

Introduction

Oxide Film

Nature of Oxide Film

Uses of Oxide Film

Thermal Oxidation growth

Chemical Reaction for Oxidation

Oxidation Growth Model

Furnace Equipment

Horizontal Versus Vertical Furnaces

Vertical Furnace

Fast Ramp Vertical Furnace

Rapid Thermal Processor

Oxidation Process

Pre Oxidation Cleaning

Oxidation Process Recipe

Quality Measurements

Oxidation Troubleshooting

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

FURNACE AND RTP EQUIPMENT Suppliers’ Web Sites

References

Chapter 11 Deposition

Objectives

Introduction

Film Layering Terminology

Film Deposition

Thin-Film Characteristics

Film Growth

Film Deposition Techniques

Chemical Vapor Deposition

CVD Chemical Processes

CVD Reaction

CVD Deposition Systems

CVD Equipment Design

APCVD (Atmospheric Pressure CVD)

LPCVD (Low Pressure CVD)

Plasma-Assisted CVD

Dielectrics and Performance

Dielectric Constant

Device Isolation

Spin-On-Dielectrics

Spin-On-Glass (SOG)

Spin-On-Dielectric (SOD)

Epitaxy

Epitaxy Growth Methods

CVD Quality Measures

CVD Troubleshooting

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

Deposition Equipment Suppliers’ Web Sites

REFERENCES

Chapter 12 Metallization

Objectives

Introduction

Types of Metals

Aluminum

Aluminum-Copper Alloys

Copper

Barrier Metals

Silicides

Metal Plugs

Metal Deposition Systems

Evaporation

Sputtering

Metal CVD

Copper Electroplate

Metallization Schemes

Traditional Aluminum Structure

Copper Damascene Structure

Metallization Quality Measures

Metallization Troubleshooting

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

Metallization Equipment and Materials Suppliers’ Web Sites

REFERENCES

Chapter 13 Photolithography: Vapor Prime to Soft Bake

Objectives

Introduction

Photolithography Concepts

Photolithography Processes

Negative Lithography

Positive Lithography

Eight Basic Steps of Photolithography

Step 1: Vapor Prime

Step 2: Spin Coat

Step 3: Soft Bake

Step 4: Alignment and Exposure

Step 5: Post-Exposure Bake (PEB)

Step 6: Develop

Step 7: Hard Bake

Step 8: Develop Inspect

Vapor Prime

Wafer Cleaning

Dehydration Bake

Wafer Priming

Spin Coat

Photoresist

Photoresist Physical Properties

Conventional I-Line Photoresists

Deep UV (DUV) Photoresists

Photoresist Dispensing Methods

Soft Bake

Soft Bake Equipment

Process Characterization

Photoresist Quality Measures

Photoresist Troubleshooting

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

PHOTORESIST MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT Suppliers’ Web Sites

References

Chapter 14 Photolithography: Alignment and Exposure

Objectives

Introduction

Importance of Alignment and Exposure

Optical Lithography

Light

Exposure Sources

Optics

Resolution

Photolithography Equipment

Contact Aligner

Proximity Aligner

Scanning Projection Aligner

Step-and-Repeat Aligner (Stepper)

Step-and-Scan System

Reticles

Optical Enhancement Techniques

Alignment

Environmental Conditions

Comparison of Photo Tools

Mix and Match

AlignMENT and ExpoSURE Quality Measures

AlignMENT and ExposURe Troubleshooting

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

PhotoRESIST materials AND Equipment Suppliers’ Web Sites

REFERENCES

Chapter 15 Photolithography: PHOTOResist Development and Advanced Lithography

Objectives

Introduction

Advanced Lithography

Post-Exposure Bake

DUV Post-Exposure Bake (PEB)

Conventional I-Line PEB

Develop

Negative Resist

Positive Resist

Development Methods

Resist Development Parameters

Hard Bake

Develop Inspect

Advanced Lithography

Next-Generation Lithography

Advanced Resist Processing

Develop Quality Measures

Develop Troubleshooting

Summary

Key Terms

Review questions

Photolithography Materials AND EQUIPMENT Suppliers’ Web Sites

REFERENCES

Chapter 16 Etch

Objectives

Introduction

Etch Processes

Etch Parameters

Etch Rate

Etch Profile

Etch Bias

Selectivity

Uniformity

Residues

Polymer Formation

Plasma-Induced Damage

Particle Contamination

Dry Etch

Etching Action

Potential Distribution

Plasma Etch Reactors

Barrel Plasma Etcher

Parallel Plate (Planar) Reactor

Downstream Etch Systems

Triode Planar Reactor

Ion Beam Milling

Reactive Ion Etch (RIE)

High-Density Plasma Etchers

Etch System Review

Endpoint Detection

Vacuum for Etch Chambers

Dry Etch Applications

Dielectric Dry Etch

Silicon Dry Etch

Metal Dry Etch

Wet Etch

Types of Wet Etch

Historical Perspective

Photoresist Removal

Plasma Ashing

ETCH Inspection

ETCH Inspection Quality Measures

Dry Etch Troubleshooting

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

Etch Equipment Suppliers’ Web Sites

REFERENCES

Chapter 17 Ion Implant

Objectives

Introduction

Doped Regions

Diffusion

Diffusion Principles

Diffusion Process

Ion Implantation

Overview

Ion Implant Parameters

Ion Implanters

Ion Source

Extraction and Ion Analyzer

Acceleration Column

Scanning System

Process Chamber

Annealing

Channeling

Particles

Ion Implant Trends IN PROCESS INTEGRATION

Deep Buried Layers

Retrograde Wells

Punchthrough Stoppers

Threshold Voltage Adjustment

Lightly Doped Drain

Source/Drain Implants

Polysilicon Gate

Trench Capacitor

Ultrashallow Junctions

Silicon-On-Insulator (SOI)

Ion Implant Quality Measures

Ion Implant Troubleshooting

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

Ion Implanter Equipment Suppliers’ Web Sites

REFERENCES

Chapter 18 Chemical Mechanical Planarization

Objectives

Introduction

Traditional Planarization

Etchback

Glass Reflow

Spin-On Films

Chemical Mechanical Planarization

CMP Planarity

Advantages of CMP

CMP Mechanisms

CMP Slurry and Pad

CMP Equipment

CMP Clean

CMP Equipment Manufacturers

CMP Applications

STI Oxide Polish

LI Oxide Polish

LI Tungsten Polish

ILD Oxide Polish

Tungsten Plug Polish

Dual-Damascene Copper Polish

CMP Quality Measures

CMP Troubleshooting

Summary

Key Terms

Review Questions

CMP Equipment Suppliers’ Web Sites

REFERENCES

Chapter 19 Wafer Test

Objectives

Introduction

IC Electrical Tests

Wafer Test

In-Line Parametric Test

Wafer Sort

Yield

Wafer Sort Yield Models

Test Quality Measures

Test Troubleshooting

Summary

Key Terms

Review questions

Test and prober equipment suppliers’ Web sites

REFERENCES

Chapter 20 Assembly and Packaging

Objectives

Introduction

Packaging Levels

Traditional Assembly

Backgrind

Die Separation

Die Attach

Wirebonding

Traditional Packaging

Plastic Packaging

Ceramic Packaging

Final Test

Advanced Assembly and Packaging

Flip Chip

Ball Grid Array (BGA)

Chip on Board (COB)

Tape Automated Bonding (TAB)

Multichip Module (MCM)

Chip Scale Packaging (CSP)

Wafer-Level Packaging

Assembly and Packaging Quality Measures

IC Packaging Troubleshooting

Summary

Key Terms

Review questions

Assembly and Packaging Suppliers’ Web Sites

References

Appendices

Appendix A Chemicals and Safety

Appendix B Contamination Controls in Cleanrooms

Appendix C Units

Appendix D Color as a Function of Oxide Thickness

Appendix E Overview of PHOTOResist Chemistry

Appendix F Etch Chemistry

Glossary

INDEX