外语教学的原则

PART 1 FOUNDATIONS OF TEACHING ENGLISH

Chapter 1 Recognize the nature of English as an international language

Introduction 3

1.1 Dialects, accents, and varieties of English 4

1.2 Kachru’s Inner Circle and Outer Circle territories 5

1.3 English in the Expanding Circle 8

1.4 Targets and standards for the use of English 10

1.5 Exonormative and endonormative standards 12

1.6 Standards for written English 14

1.7 The role of culture in learning English as an international language: Big C culture and Small c culture 15

1.8 Intercultural competence 17

1.9 Using English as an international language 20

Conclusion 26

Follow-up 28

References and further reading 28

Chapter 2 Develop your professional knowledge and skills

Introduction 32

2.1 Teaching English as a profession 33

2.2 Disciplinary knowledge 34

2.3 Proficiency in English 38

2.4 Pedagogical content knowledge 39

2.5 Practical teaching skills 44

Conclusion 49

Follow-up 49

References and further reading 50

Chapter 3 Review your use of English in teaching

Introduction 51

3.1 What kind of proficiency in English does an English teacher need? 51

3.2 NESTs and NNESTs 52

3.3 Teaching English through English 55

3.4 Using English to support scaffolded and dialogic learning 58

3.5 Using English as a teaching resource to support incidental language learning 60

3.6 Providing corrective feedback 63

3.7 Use of questions in teaching 65

3.8 Using language to assist learning 66

3.9 Code-switching 69

3.10 Monitoring the English you use when you teach 70

Conclusion 73

Follow-up 73

References and further reading 74

PART 2 THE ROLE OF TEACHING PRINCIPLES

Chapter 4 Apply principles from approaches and methods

Introduction 79

4.1 Approaches and methods 80

4.2 Applying principles from methods 81

4.3 Assumptions behind the methods 85

4.4 The communicative approach in language teaching 86

4.5 Assumptions behind the different course designs 96

Conclusion 98

Follow-up 100

References and further reading 100

Chapter 5 Develop your personal teaching principles

Introduction 101

5.1 Beliefs and principles 101

5.2 The influence of school-based learning on beliefs, principles and practices 103

5.3 Beliefs about English 105

5.4 Beliefs about second language learning 107

5.5 Principles that reflect learner differences 110

5.6 Beliefs and principles about the nature of effective teaching 116

5.7 Personal teaching principles 117

Conclusion 121

Follow-up 122

References and further reading 122

PART 3 THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE LESSONS

Chapter 6 Understand the nature of lesson structures and activities

Introduction 127

6.1 The nature of lesson structures 128

6.2 Lesson openings 129

6.3 A lesson’s instructional activities 130

6.4 Departing from conventional lesson structures 135

6.5 Features of instructional activities 137

6.6 Mechanical, meaningful, and communicative activities 140

6.7 Tasks 145

6.8 Lesson closings 146

Conclusion 147

Follow-up 148

References and further reading 148

Chapter 7 Develop learner-centered lessons

Introduction 150

7.1 Teacher-, curriculum-, and learner-centered perspectives 151

7.2 Learner-centeredness in teaching 154

7.3 Developing a class profile 155

7.4 Developing the class as a community of learners 157

Conclusion 165

Follow-up 166

References and further reading 166

PART 4 DYNAMICS OF THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

Chapter 8 Manage your classroom as an effective learning space

Introduction 171

8.1 Classroom climate 171

8.2 Strategies for creating a supportive classroom climate 172

8.3 Classroom management 174

8.4 Arranging the class for learning 176

8.5 Managing time in a lesson 182

Conclusion 184

Follow-up 185

References and further reading 185

Chapter 9 Create an emotionally supportive classroom

Introduction 186

9.1 The nature of emotions in language teaching 186

9.2 The teacher’s emotional competence 188

9.3 Emotions and learners 191

9.4 Creating an emotionally managed classroom 195

9.5 Strategies to achieve an emotionally supportive classroom climate 197

Conclusion 198

Follow-up 199

References and further reading 199

PART 5 FEATURES OF CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES

Chapter 10 Use skill-getting and skill-using activities

Introduction 203

10.1 The purpose of classroom activities 203

10.2 The role of noticing 206

10.3 The role of practicing 208

10.4 Skill-getting activities 211

10.5 Skill-using activities 213

Conclusion 216

Follow-up 217

References and further reading 217

Chapter 11 Showcase your creativity

Introduction 219

11.1 The nature of creativity 220

11.2 Creativity in language teaching 221

11.3 Have confidence in your intuitions 223

11.4 Find original ways of doing things 224

11.5 Vary the way you do things 225

11.6 Don’t be afraid to take risks 226

11.7 Use activities which have creative dimensions 228

11.8 Make creative use of technology 230

11.9 Review how creative your teaching is 232

Conclusion 233

Follow-up 234

References and further reading 234

PART 6 ACHIEVING FUNCTIONAL LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 12 Focus on learning outcomes

Introduction 237

12.1 The nature of “general English” 238

12.2 Describing proficiency levels 239

12.3 Developing a syllabus 243

12.4 Activities and aims 246

12.5 Aims and objectives 247

12.6 Learning outcomes 249

Conclusion 252

Follow-up 253

References and further reading 253

Chapter 13 Teach grammar as a communicative resource

Introduction 255

13.1 Understanding grammar vs. using grammar 256

13.2 Teach awareness of the nature of texts 258

13.3 Develop awareness of differences between spoken and written language 260

13.4 Use corpora to explore texts 262

13.5 Use deductive and inductive approaches 263

13.6 Provide opportunities for guided noticing 265

13.7 Provide opportunities for meaningful communicative practice 266

13.8 Provide opportunities for students to produce stretched output 267

13.9 Make links between grammar and vocabulary 269

13.10 Use student errors to inform instruction 270

13.11 Integrate grammar with the four skills 272

13.12 Use the resources of the Internet and technology 275

Conclusion 277

Follow-up 277

References and further reading 277

PART 7 CREATIVE PRACTICE IN TEACHING

Chapter 14 Use your textbook as a sourcebook

Introduction 281

14.1 Functions of textbooks 282

14.2 Teachers and textbooks 284

14.3 Limitations of textbooks 285

14.4 Choosing textbooks 288

14.5 How teachers use textbooks 289

14.6 Using a textbook as a sourcebook rather than a coursebook 290

14.7 Teachers as developers of materials: a case study 295

Conclusion 298

Follow-up 298

References and further reading 298

Chapter 15 Use the resources of technology

Introduction 300

15.1 Teachers and technology 301

15.2 Support for learners 303

15.3 Supporting learning beyond the classroom 304

15.4 Support for teachers 309

15.5 Support for the four skills 312

15.6 Creative uses of technology 316

Conclusion 319

Follow-up 320

References and further reading 320

PART 8 THE NATURE OF TEACHER CHANGE

Chapter 16 Explore your teacher identity

Introduction 325

16.1 The nature of teacher identity 326

16.2 Personal identity and teacher identity 326

16.3 Identity and the teacher’s roles in the classroom 328

16.4 Characteristics of identity 329

16.5 The sources of our teacher identity 333

16.6 Other aspects of teacher identity 336

Conclusion 339

Follow-up 339

References and further reading 339

Chapter 17 Plan your professional development

Introduction 341

17.1 Reviewing your professional development 341

17.2 Developing a professional development plan 346

17.3 Deciding how to implement your plan 351

Conclusion 356

Follow-up 357

References and further reading 357

Glossary 359